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This forum is powered by Phorum. Registered: 3 years ago Posts: Registered: 2 years ago Posts: 1. Registered: 1 year ago Posts: 1. Agisoft PhotoScan Professional Version: 1. Agisoft PhotoScan Professional gives you the possibility to align photos, set up the parameters related to geometry and texture, zoom in or out, rotate the pictures to different angles, as well as delete or crop the selected area.
During the picture alignment operation, the program searches for common points and matches them, while the geometry building process, which is based on the estimated camera positions, displays the photos as 3D polygon meshes. Once you have designed the geometry of an object, you can proceed with applying several textures, which can be used for orthophoto projects. Sediment accumulation is blue, while erosion is red. The maximum erodible depth is equal to the erodible sediment layer thickness.
Map data is idealized, based on measurements. In general, the D3D computations reveal that wave-induced currents take sediment from the southern reef and transport it towards the south and east coast without seaport structures being present.
The 2DH model highlights the difference in wave driven current patterns leading to sediment transport around the port area. The models also facilitate scrutinizing the changes in sediment transport with and without the harbor infrastructure being present.
These computations confirm the processes outlined with the D3D computations and further highlight two factors, contributing to the erosion along the east coast of the island:.
The first factor is the available sediment. However, with the breakwater present, the structure interrupts the sediment transport and sediment cannot enter this area. As a consequence, it deflects the current and thus redirects the sediment off the reef into deeper waters.
Green dashed contours show the water depths of the reef platform for 5 m, 10 m, and 50 m. Instead, with the harbor present, the breakwater obstructs the emerging current in this area and deflects the velocity momentum off-shore.
With missing sediment from the reef, the currents will likely take sediment from the coast, leading to erosion. On Fuvahmulah At the same time, both the interviews with government officials as well as the recently issued Environmental Impact Assessments EIAs on coastal protection on Fuvahmulah reveal that administrations on the national and local level acknowledge erosion as a high priority issue on the island.
In fact, the Maldives national government actively promotes this narrative of being highly vulnerable to climate change induced sea level rise 49 — even in the case of Fuvahmulah. The household survey contained an open question without pre-formulated responses asking the participants to name visible changes of the natural environment on the island. These diametrically opposed perceptions on root causes behind coastal adaptation originate from the historical context of national politics and local society.
Selected questions and answer frequency from the population survey. See Supplementary Information File for the question type open or closed question as well as associated codes and coding rules. First experiences with coastal infrastructure in the Maldives dates back to the s, when the first modern coastal protection constructions were built on the islands In accordance with the Maldives Decentralization Act in , the national government shifted its focus onto regional development centers, equipped with the necessary infrastructure 26 and limiting the migration to the capital Decisions are made at the highest level and have an impact down to the local scale.
When regarding the implementation of coastal development projects in the Maldives, the planning, implementation and decision-making process are centrally executed and ministerially anchored in the national government without significant involvement of local capacities on the islands.
According to actors involved in coastal governance, in general, such top-down processes in decision and implementation are applied for coastal infrastructure projects, for example seaports as well as coastal protection structures. Regional and local government institutions, such as the city council on Fuvahmulah, lack influencing power in the decision-making process. According to the interviewees, the role of local government institutions is limited to informing national-level actors about coastal problems on their island.
The lack of power is also expressed by missing financial resources for coastal projects at a council-level interview with a representative of a state environmental agency in In addition, infrastructure projects usually require external financial and knowledge resources, provided by international organizations.
However, international organizations are legally bound to use the national government as an entry point and cannot initiate projects below the central national-level. Moreover, since , the EIA Regulation of the Maldives requires to assess the adverse impact of infrastructure projects on the environment.
However, quality and compliance to EIA policies — also for example in the tourism sector 39 — are traditionally weak 40 and have extensively promulgated technical fortification of many inhabited islands in the Maldives 20 , 22 , Locals even believe Fuvahmulah to be comparatively safer than other islands in the Maldives.
In addition, building houses was traditionally only allowed in the center of the islands behind the green belt, consisting of local trees and shrubs. However, in , a 86 m long seawall was built on the central east-side as the first protection measure on the island, followed by noticeable erosion I think around 20 feet has gone.
So, it is a huge risk for our people in our community. So, I am very much worried about it. Fuvahmulah has gained more attention by the national government in the last two decades, manifested through numerous development projects in that time, thus erosion — being a high priority issue on the island — is a matter dealt with on the highest governmental level nowadays. An international consultant supported the MEE together with a local sub-contractor in the site investigation, the feasibility study, the technical design 50 and the draft of the legally mandatory Environmental and Social Impact Assessment ESIA The technical design report finds human interventions and changes in natural processes disturb the natural balance of the sediment supply along the coastline A preceding feasibility study was cited in the report, identifying two possible solutions against the ongoing erosion and rendering them reasonable while considering their environmental and social impacts — an offshore breakwater and an onshore revetment.
The technical report concludes the revetment to be the most viable option, after presenting preliminary designs and a cost-benefit analysis of both alternatives. The final revetment is about to cover approximately the southern 2. The ESIA initially gives five approaches to coastal adaptation, but finds ecological methods would contain a high uncertainty and that they would be ineffective. Also, the report further dismisses soft measures also known as sediment-based measures as unsuitable because a proper local sediment source is supposedly missing.
The impact assessment report finally presents the same coastal protection alternatives that have been suggested in the technical design report However, in addition to the technical design report, the ESIA also contains stakeholder consultations on the project. The first local stakeholders consultation took place in July on Fuvahmulah and addressed the off-shore and on-shore protection alternatives. In summary, both reports dismiss feasible soft solutions due to false assumptions missing sediment source, however the reef naturally provides marine aggregates 5 , 9 and undermine the participatory process by promoting the less popular alternative in the end.
In principle, public participation is a key component of EIAs 39 and when taken into the decision-making process, public participation also leads to more sustainable implementation of development projects. Small island policy aims for an improved economic situation and at the same time for better provision of access.
To improve this situation for the island dwellers of Fuvahmulah, a sea- and an airport were constructed at the time. As of today — almost 20 years later — climate change and sea level rise causes marine pressures and these pressures dominate the discourse on small islands.
As a result, small island state governments prepare their nations for the associated adverse impacts. Coastal erosion is a pressing issue of inhabited reef islands like Fuvahmulah and adaptation measures need to address these issues under deeply uncertain future projections. In addition, the government of the Maldives — as other SIDS 27 — most often relies on external, technical knowledge and funding to realize climate change adaptation and vital development projects.
As a consequence, the resulting planning efforts and constructive responses are mostly based on external design guidelines and building codes. In general, experiences from the past are mainstreamed into international design guidelines and building codes 52 , 53 , and then guidelines and bulding codes give best-practice examples under certain environmental conditions.
In case of coastal structures these environmental conditions are predominantly those of mainland coasts. Endorsing hard coastal protection is common in SIDS 27 and based on both, their top-down governance structure as well as their dependency on international funding — two aspects, that are also a legacy from the colonial history of SIDS.
In the Maldives, consequent consideration of hard structures and acceptance of their associated adverse impacts on the environment is historically grown, and ill-prepared policies and policy compliance is projected to continually exist 26 , In both cases, transcribing inappropriate mainland design criteria to sensitive reef environments have caused an insufficient level of coastal protection on small islands in the past.
In most cases, there is a straight forward transfer from external knowledge and guidelines to local circumstances, overlooking the special features and services of the fringing coral reef. Yet, corals are important for the livelihood and protection of the accommodated reef islands.
In terms of protection, the main ecosystem service of healthy coral reefs is their ability to attenuate waves 16 and to supply the reef island with coral sediments 5 , Generic hard-engineered coastal protection have led to disturbances of natural dynamics and the associated ecosystem services in the Maldives 20 , 22 , 26 , 34 and in other SIDS 25 , In a worst case scenario, generic hard-engineered approaches to coastal protection and adaptation even fail to alleviate but aggravate adverse effects on the natural environment.
Also future plans for coastal protection on the Maldives 22 fail to implement a local perspective on dealing with changes. Traditionally, human intervention beyond the natural green belt of Fuvamulah used to be highly limited, leaving the protection feature and natural sediment distribution on the reef intact.
However, the first hard-engineered protection measures have already led to complications Sand-mining is discussed as a factor and cause for coastal erosion on Fuvahmulah. Sand-mining can potentially put anthropogenic pressure on small islands 25 and on Fuvahmulah, sand-mining for private purposes was frequently witnessed within the field campaigns around the island.
A further reason for increased erosion could be climate variability. However, this study does not include an in-depth assessment on recent climate variability and possible effects on the east-coast of Fuvahmulah, albeit there are tendencies of changing climate impacts for example sea surface temperature oscillations in the Indian Ocean , which could have affected the formation of Thoondu beach in 5.
Based on the field campaigns and the recorded high-resolution data, this study finds coastal erosion on Fuvahmulah to be a negative consequence from the seaport. The seaport is an anthropogenic intervention into the coral reef system adversely impacting the natural sediment transport and the associated wave-induced redistribution pattern around the island — much more than sand-mining or climate variability. The seaport is located at one of these hotspots, disturbing the natural sediment transport around the island Fig.
The seaport construction was arguably a trade-off for economic development and societal well-being at the expense of natural conservation. Bypassing this barrier would be a suitable remedy resurrecting the natural sediment transport along the east side Hard-engineered responses can undermine the natural dynamics feeding the reef island with coral sediment. This study illustrates this on Fuvahmulah, but the findings are scalable to further examples in the Maldives 26 and on other SIDS Following the DPSIR chain of causal links, this continuously affects the current state adversely and leads to the associated maladaptive impacts on the environment and society.
Scrutinizing the case study of Fuvahmulah with an interdisciplinary approach documents the significance of societal demands and political decisions leading to maladaptation. It shows that maladaptation is implemented in a socio-political context, aiming to improve the economic or societal situation by consistently trading-off ecosystem services.
However, instead of compensating and mitigating these trade-offs seriously, the socio-political responses lead to cascading maladaptive activities. The subsequent ESIA and technical report dismissed a potential soft solution, such as beach nourishment, claiming no sustainable sediment source was available on the island.
The external contractor disregarded the reef as sediment source and sediment transport patterns on reef islands — even though this information was made available through research in the past decades 9 and is confirmed to be valid for this island as well 5.
Neglecting these vital ecosystem services and transferring generic solutions for mainland coasts beyond their scope of application is another rigorous example of building in nature — in contrast to a sustainable building with nature However, the technical report and EIA on the coastal protection project discusses only hard-engineered alternatives in the stakeholder consultation, while the measure less preferred by locals was finally chosen.
By framing stakeholder consultation as project risk mitigation instead of equitable part of decision-making, the ESIA epitomizes the deficits of prescribing development projects in a top-down manner and lacks to provide a solution acceptable for the society and suitable for the environment. Somewhat arbitrary compliance with national EIA guidelines is commonplace in the Maldives, leading to questionable assessments regularly 39 , 40 and ultimately failing to address the root causes of adverse impacts on reef environments.
Yet such recurring and systematically provoked maladaptive actions go beyond the initial scope of maladaptation. Against this background, this study defines the concept of maldevelopment: maldevelopment is a socio-political phenomenon amplifying maladaptation which is characterized by decisions or policies in constant or deliberate favor of inadequate actions and trade-offs towards future climate change related risk.
Structural maldevelopment to date impairs the potential of dealing with additional future changes, such as sea level rise, extreme wave events, and storm surges. Studying maldevelopment in its comprehensiveness leads to the conclusion that sustainable development requires an integrated analysis of political interests and societal demands within the natural boundaries, in order to adequately address future climate change stressors.
This study finds structural maldevelopment being the most important human driver of undesired coastal changes on small islands. Risks evolving from maldevelopment add onto the current and future risks of the other significant natural driver, being climate change and the associated impacts. This is very likely not only true for Fuvahmulah, as many small islands in the Maldives and in the world show symptoms of maldevelopment 22 , 25 , 27 , Local knowledge conveys a distinct local capacity towards economic development in combination with future environmental protection on the island.
Implementing and evolving these capacities into a tailored adaptation pathway plan facilitates to consider smaller and less intrusive responses beyond conventional hard-engineering approaches, discloses their potentials and limitations, and leaves further scope of action for the future.
Such a more conceptual approach of adaptation pathway planning requires 1 a greater focus on the underlying process, 2 a systematic collaboration between local, national and external experts and stakeholders on the island, 3 ongoing monitoring on the natural and societal impact of the implemented measures, and based on this 4 frequent adjustments on the pathway roadmap by responsible authorities when an adaptation tipping point is reached and the current status a policy action or actions will fail.
In this regard, dynamic adaptive policy models represent suitable, modern methods, allowing more conceptual approaches to be embedded into continuous and sustainable coastal planning Amalgamating coastal and societal aspects leads to a comprehensive understanding of the ongoing natural and socio-political processes behind coastal issues. These interdisciplinary insights underline that adaptation strategies and measures need to be adjusted to local circumstances.
This helps to 1 avoid an interruption of the coastal system, 2 undermine vital ecosystem services and 3 sustain natural coastal protection. Based on three field campaigns, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles UAVs capture the topography of Fuvahmulah and facilitate analyzing shoreline changes. The aerial surveys covered the entire coast of Fuvahmulah, except the beaches adjacent to the airport, which are a no-flight-zone.
DEMs are three dimensional models of the area, containing height and color information, here in about 3. The resulting coastal DEMs were recorded at different points in time, facilitate analyzing temporal changes of sediment volumes on the beach, shoreline location and vegetation. The general workflow in Photoscan is to align the photos, georeference the model with Ground Control Points GCPs , and create a dense point cloud as well as a mesh of the area Photoscan derives the DEM from the dense point cloud, while the mesh serves as base for the orthophoto for further information on input parameters of each processing step in Photoscan, see Supplementary Materials.
Apart from the erosion, the position of dedicated landmarks between all three field campaigns were reproduced with the expected accuracy 61 , 62 for SfM-MVS procedures in coastal areas.
In general, the inspected erosion starts at the bottom of the beach profile. Waves and currents carve out the sediment under the roots of the coastal forest or dislocate coral rocks.
Owing to the specific erosion process on Fuvahmulah, early erosion remains mostly undetected in the DEMs, mostly until the upper part slips or collapses. However, adjacent to the seaport, the erosion is advanced enough to be well visible in the DEMs. To evaluate the drivers behind sediment transport, this study uses numerical near-shore wave models. These models require regional wave climate information as hydrodynamic boundary conditions. Data from wave spectra are an appropriate resource to be used as boundary condition in models of finer spatio-temporal resolution 63 , To validate the modeled wave climate data, this study compares each data set with wave heights derived from individual harmonized and inter-calibrated SRA measurements of the GFZ Altimeter Data System 45 see Fig.
Overview on wave data repositories. Data repositories considered for the local wave climate analysis. CY41R2 The model uses a grid with 0. To compare the data sets, this study correlates ocean wave time series from all three repositories with a cross-correlation function from the nodes closest to Fuvahmulah. The general solution for a cross-correlation function writes as:.
The normalized cross-correlation values range from 1 for equal signals over 0 for uncorrelated signals to —1 as a reverse or negatively correlated signal. The wave data in each repository contains time series of over 40 years. For the analysis, the time series is split up in annual sections from until and used separately in the cross-correlation function Fig.
To estimate the spatial variability of the data, a correlation of different spatial output nodes of the CAWCR data set Fig. The data is computed with the same tools as the hindcast data. Yet, the global grid is coarser with spatial increments of 1.
The RCP 4. In general, the performance of global ocean wave models is good in the Indian Ocean when compared to buoy data 64 , The comparison to SRA measurements shows that wave data from global models occasionally underestimates wave heights, due to their relatively coarse spatio-temporal resolution in order of kilometers and hours.
This improves with higher spatio-temporal resolutions Other studies have shown that underpredicted wave heights are especially prominent in extreme events In addition, non-linear effects can mitigate increased flood risk associated with sea-level rise In front of this background, wave heights under the respective RCP scenarios are conservative estimates of hazard levels, as the ocean wave models have a resolution of 1.
In this context, on Fuvahmulah, historically rare extreme events will become common by under all RCPs 2 , 3. With the wave climate as boundary conditions, numerical wave models can reconstruct waves and wave-induced currents and thus give insights into sediment transport processes on the reef under different scenarios for example with or without seaport infrastructure. This study uses two numerical models for different purposes.
First, D3D helps to study the general sediment transport processes on the fringing reef platform under the characteristic wave climate of the region. The phase-averaging wave module of D3D uses wave spectra in its governing equations and combines them with sediment transport formulations To study the influence of the port infrastructure on the adjacent coastal areas, this study uses the depth-integrated 2DH Boussinesq-type model BOSZ The phase-resolving wave model can directly capture wave transformation and secondary processes such as wave setup and recirculation over the reef.
It is therefore suitable to study the current-induced processes in the study area in detail. While the computation of direct sediment transportation is challenging, the general wave-induced current velocities or shear stresses from wave-induced currents serve as the driving forces behind the most prominent bedload and suspended sediment transportation formulations Thus, acceleration, deceleration and presence of current fields are direct indicators for sediment accretion and sediment pick-up.
D3D has been used successfully for calculating sediment transport and demonstrated good performance in both experimental and hindcast studies The model is in general capable to outline the morphodynamic processes on the Fuvahmulah reef.
In the model, the entire island Fuvahmulah lies at 3 m above mean sea level MSL. The off-shore reef south of the island has a similar shape in the model compared to the real reef.
However, to provide enough cells to transport sediment, the virtual fringing reef in the model is wider than the physical reef around Fuvahmulah. To evaluate sediment transport pathways around the island, the reef was covered with a 1 m layer of erodible sediment at the start of each computation.
The underlying assumption is that the reef platform is the main sediment supplier for the island 5 , While the simplifications allow for a larger set of computations, the implementation is still sufficiently detailed to capture the very general interaction between bathymetry, waves and sediment on the reef. Despite the complexity of sediment transport on coral reefs 79 , for a first estimation, D3D runs only with the default suspended and bed-load sediment transport formulations The reef bathymetry in the 2DH model comes from records of a single-beam, dual-frequency echo-sounder Dr.
The minimum depth of the echo-sounder was 4 m due to the draft of the boat. The Generic Mapping Tool 80 interpolates the combined elevation and bathymetry data on a 7. Since this study focuses on the wave driven longshore currents, ocean circulation around Fuvahmulah and the tidal current velocity was disregarded for sediment transport processes for further information, see Supplementary Materials.
This can be considered standard practice when regarding longshore sediment transport and confirms that longshore sediment transport mainly depends on incident waves, while tidal and ocean currents are of minor importance Both numerical approaches reveal the impact of the regional wave climate on sediment transport and thus on erosion. However, some limitations apply to the results of the numerical models: the wave input is based on storm wave heights of two peak directions, while moderate seas also have an influence on sediment transport and beach restoration Furthermore, D3D is able to reconstruct experimental and hindcast data of sandy beaches 78 , but application on reef island morphodynamics is scarce For Fuvahmulah, D3D does not implement port structures in its bathymetry, to mimic the natural sediment pathways.
The coarse resolution and the idealized bathymetry give a general concept of sediment movement on the reef rather than quantitative volumes of transported sediment. Still, the coarse model is able to reconstruct typical, process-based morphodynamic behavior for an environment like the Fuvahmulah reef 5. The 2DH wave model comprises a more detailed study with and without the port structure. However, the results must be interpreted with caution: the 2DH approach calculates current velocities but does not yield transported sediment volumes.
Erosion and sedimentation depend on more than only current velocities 5. For example, research on organism scale shows that sediment transport on coral reef bottoms is complex However, current velocities are the main driver behind sediment transport phenomena and velocity gradients hint at hotspots of erosion and sedimentation With this in mind, the computed wave-induced currents are able to illustrate the role of the southeastern reef area under the given wave climate for the sediment transport around Fuvahmulah.
The analysis of the societal dynamics is based on a mixed-methods approach to convey the social and governance aspects influencing coastal protection and climate change related topics. The approach encompasses 1 a literature review and content analysis of climate change adaptation and coastal protection literature in the Maldives, 2 two surveys with the local population, which are complemented by 3 semi-structured interviews with relevant actors involved in coastal management on the local as well as on the national-level.
All participants gave their voluntary consent to participate and have been informed about the objective of the research. The collected data of the second survey and the interviews were analyzed via a structuring content analysis in the software program MAXQDA The concept-driven or deductive approach follows a categorization structure established before the field campaign.
However, the possibility to respond to open-ended questions also requires post-processing of the responses based on their content — resulting in a data-driven approach. The first survey and interviews took place from March to April and were synchronized with the first field campaign, measuring topographic and hydrodynamic data. Intermediate results from both work packages and the associated discussions led to interdisciplinary insights, considered in the second survey January to February The literature review was conducted by content analysis.
The analysis focused on publications relevant to climate change adaptation and coastal protection in the Maldives, including peer-reviewed papers, legislation and regulations, as well as gray literature. Legislation and regulations were primarily identified with the support of actors in the Maldives coastal governance system through the semi-structured interviews, ensuring their relevance and completeness. The literature review also encompasses previous EIAs on coastal projects in the Maldives, as these are required to list the legislations and regulations that are applicable to the projects.
Most legislation and regulations are available in an English version on the website of the respective ministry, however, documents in the local language Dhivehi have not been considered.
The documents were analyzed via a qualitative content analysis 85 , which focused on the following thematic codes or categories in the context of the coastal governance system in the Maldives: 1 distribution of responsibilities among actors in the context of coastal protection, 2 history of coastal protection measures, 3 framing of coastal protection in the climate change discussion and 4 framing of coastal protection in the climate change discussion framing of coastal protection in the climate change discussion.
The analysis disclosed knowledge gaps in the literature and demonstrated the need for an exploratory and qualitative research approach. Therefore, the study also contains population surveys and semi-structured interviews. Laws and policy regulations on coastal risks and sea-level rise in the Maldives are assessed according to the framework of Gussmann and Hinkel
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